Fan Li (simplified: 范蠡, traditional: 范蠡, pinyin: Fàn Lǐ, jyutping: faan6 lai5), also known as Tao Zhu Gong (陶朱公) and Chi Yi Zi Pi (鸱夷子皮), was a prominent statesman, military strategist, and businessman during the Spring and Autumn period of ancient China. Born on October 22, 536 BCE in Wandi Sanhuyi, Chu State (present-day Xichuan County, Nanyang, Henan), he died in 448 BCE. His style name was Shaobo (少伯), and he was also known as Fan Bo (范伯) during his early years in Chu before entering government service.
As one of the most important advisors to King Goujian of Yue, Fan Li played a crucial role in the state’s eventual victory over the powerful state of Wu. His later success in business made him legendary, and he is still worshipped as a god of wealth by merchants throughout China.
Fan Li’s strategic thinking and political acumen were instrumental in transforming Yue from a defeated and humiliated state into one capable of challenging and ultimately conquering its powerful neighbor. His later success in business demonstrated his versatility and the practical application of his strategic thinking to various fields.
Biography
Early life and rise to prominence
Fan Li was born into a poor family but was exceptionally intelligent and well-read from a young age. He was knowledgeable in astronomy, geography, literature, and military strategy. However, despite his talents, he was not recognized in Chu, where the nobility monopolized power and the political situation was chaotic.
According to historical records, when Fan Li was living in Chu, he pretended to be eccentric and unconventional. Wen Zhong (文种), who was serving as magistrate of Wan County, sent an official to visit Fan Li. The official returned and reported that Fan Li was a madman. Wen Zhong laughed and said, “I have heard that when a scholar has the appearance of a worthy, he must have the criticism of being eccentric. Those with unique insight within are often misunderstood without. This is certainly not something you can understand.” Wen Zhong then went to visit Fan Li personally, and after their meeting, they became close friends and colleagues.
Service to King Goujian
In 496 BCE, Wu and Yue fought at Zuili (槜李), and King Helü of Wu was killed, creating enmity between the two states. In 494 BCE, when Helü’s son Fuchai sought revenge, Fan Li advised Goujian against launching a preemptive attack, but Goujian did not listen. Yue was defeated at Fujiao (夫椒), and Goujian was left with only 5,000 soldiers trapped on Mount Kuaiji.
Fan Li advised Goujian to temporarily surrender to Wu, which Goujian agreed to do. Fan Li then accompanied Goujian to Wu, where they served as slaves to Fuchai for three years before being allowed to return to Yue.
After Goujian’s return to Yue, Fan Li, Wen Zhong, and others assisted him in developing production and reviving Yue. In 473 BCE, Yue destroyed Wu. Fan Li then assisted Goujian in marching north, meeting with the states of Qi, Jin, Song, and Lu at Xuzhou, where Goujian appointed Fan Li as Grand General (上将军).
Later life and business success
After Yue’s victory over Wu, Fan Li recognized that it would be difficult to remain in Yue after having rendered such great service. He believed that Goujian’s appearance—“long neck and bird beak”—meant he could share hardship but not prosperity. Following the principle that “when the birds are gone, the good bow is stored away; when the rabbits are dead, the hunting dogs are cooked” (飞鸟尽，良弓藏；狡兔死，走狗烹), Fan Li left Yue with Xi Shi (西施), traveling to Qi State.
In Qi, Fan Li changed his name to Chi Yi Zi Pi (鸱夷子皮) and settled with his sons and disciples by the sea, working hard to reclaim land and engage in agriculture, sideline production, and commerce. Within a few years, he accumulated tens of millions in wealth. His reputation for virtue and ability led the King of Qi to invite him to the capital Linzi (临淄) and appoint him as Prime Minister.
However, after three years, Fan Li sighed and said, “To reach the rank of prime minister from a commoner, and to accumulate a thousand gold pieces—for a man who started with nothing, this is the limit. To long endure such honor may not be auspicious.” He returned his seal of office to the King of Qi, distributed his wealth to friends and fellow villagers, and left again.
Fan Li moved to Tao (陶, present-day Dingtao, Shandong), which he called “the center of the world” due to its strategic location connecting Qi, Lu, Qin, Zheng, Jin, Yan, Chu, and Yue. There, he applied Jiran’s economic principles (操计然之术), engaging in commerce based on seasonal changes, climate, and market conditions. Within a few years, he became extremely wealthy again and took the name “Zhu Gong” (朱公), later known as Tao Zhu Gong (陶朱公). He remained in Tao until his death, and the local people revered him as the God of Wealth (财神).
Fan Li is considered the ancestor of ethical business practices in China. The historian Sima Qian wrote: “Fan Li moved three times, and each time he gained honor and fame.” Historical records summarize his life: “He competed with the times without blaming others.” People praised him: “Loyalty to serve the state; wisdom to preserve oneself; commerce to achieve wealth, and fame throughout the world.”
Fan Li also wrote The Art of Fish Farming (Yang Yu Jing - 养鱼经), which documented his experience raising carp and becoming wealthy, making it the world’s earliest treatise on fish farming.
Personality and traits
Strategic thinking
Fan Li’s most defining characteristic was his exceptional strategic thinking and his ability to develop long-term plans that could overcome immediate setbacks. This strategic thinking influenced all of his actions and decisions throughout his service to the Yue state and his later business career.
This strategic approach extended beyond simple military planning to include various aspects of state governance, political strategy, and business planning. His willingness to invest significant time and effort in developing comprehensive strategies demonstrated the depth of his commitment to success in whatever field he pursued.
Political acumen
Fan Li demonstrated exceptional political acumen that made him effective in various administrative and strategic roles. His ability to navigate complex political situations and to develop effective responses to various challenges allowed him to achieve significant results in his various undertakings.
His political skills reflected the traditional emphasis on merit and ability that characterized many successful statesmen during this period, where officials were expected to demonstrate their worth through their actions and achievements.
Adaptability and versatility
Fan Li’s ability to successfully transition from government service to business demonstrated his adaptability and versatility. His willingness to apply his strategic thinking to different fields showed his understanding that the same principles that led to success in one area could be applied to others.
This adaptability influenced his approach to various challenges and his interactions with different types of people, leading him to seek continuous improvement and new opportunities for success.
Military and political abilities
Strategic planning
Fan Li’s mastery of strategic planning represented one of the most important aspects of his abilities. His ability to develop comprehensive strategies that could overcome immediate setbacks and achieve long-term objectives made him particularly effective in guiding Yue’s recovery and eventual victory.
This strategic planning enhanced the effectiveness of Yue’s military and political operations and provided the foundation necessary for both immediate survival and long-term success.
Administrative efficiency
Fan Li’s commitment to administrative efficiency represented another important aspect of his abilities. His dedication to continuous improvement in both his strategic planning and administrative skills demonstrated his understanding of the importance of effective governance in maintaining military readiness and political stability.
This administrative efficiency influenced his approach to various challenges and his interactions with other government officials, leading him to prioritize both strategic effectiveness and administrative excellence in his decision-making.
Diplomatic skills
Fan Li’s diplomatic skills and his understanding of the broader political landscape made him an effective representative of the Yue state. His ability to maintain positive relationships with potential allies while advancing Yue’s interests demonstrated his understanding of the complex nature of interstate relations during this period.
These diplomatic skills were particularly important in the years following Yue’s defeat, when the state needed to rebuild its alliances and relationships while preparing for eventual revenge against Wu.
Business abilities
Strategic business planning
Fan Li’s success in business demonstrated his ability to apply strategic thinking to commercial endeavors. His understanding of market dynamics and his ability to develop long-term business strategies showed how the same principles that led to military and political success could be applied to business.
This strategic business planning enhanced the effectiveness of his commercial operations and provided the foundation necessary for both immediate profitability and long-term business success.
Risk management
Fan Li’s approach to business demonstrated his understanding of risk management and his ability to balance potential rewards with potential risks. His success in various commercial ventures showed his ability to make calculated decisions that could lead to significant profits while minimizing potential losses.
This risk management approach influenced his business decisions and his interactions with various business partners and competitors, leading him to prioritize both profitability and sustainability in his commercial endeavors.
Relationships
King Goujian
Fan Li’s primary relationship within the Yue government was his service as one of King Goujian’s most trusted advisors. This relationship was characterized by mutual trust and shared commitment to Yue’s recovery and eventual victory over Wu.
His connection with the monarch provided him with the authority and resources necessary to implement various strategies while also requiring him to fulfill various governmental obligations and responsibilities.
Other government officials
Fan Li’s relationships with other government officials reflected his position within the broader Yue government hierarchy. His interactions with officials from other departments often involved discussions of government policy and the coordination of various administrative and military operations.
These relationships demonstrated how statesmen could contribute to the broader success of the Yue state while maintaining their own department’s effectiveness and readiness.
Business associates
Fan Li’s relationships with various business associates and partners reflected his commercial skills and his understanding of the business landscape. His ability to maintain positive relationships with various business partners while advancing his own commercial interests made him an effective businessman.
These relationships often involved complex negotiations and the balancing of various competing interests, and Fan Li’s success in managing these relationships contributed significantly to his ability to achieve various business objectives.
Behind the scenes
Historical significance
Fan Li’s role in Yue’s history serves to illustrate the broader political and military landscape of the Spring and Autumn period. His presence helps to establish the various ways in which statesmen could contribute to the broader success of their states, providing a backdrop against which the complex nature of interstate relations during this period can be understood.
His character also represents the various ways in which strategic thinking and political acumen could combine to create effective governance and military success, showing how long-term planning could overcome immediate setbacks.
Character development
Fan Li’s character development throughout his service to Yue and his later business career demonstrates the various challenges and opportunities that statesmen faced during this turbulent period. His experiences reflect the complex nature of interstate politics and the various factors that influenced governmental decisions within the Spring and Autumn period.
This development provides readers with insight into the broader political and military context of the era, helping to establish the realistic and complex world in which various states operated and competed for power and influence.
Historical sources
The information in this article is based on historical records including:
docs/fetched-data/SYM_20251101_083557/人物/范蠡_20251101_001646.json- Primary source for biographical details, dates, and historical eventsdocs/references/historical-glossary.md- Reference for historical context and terminologydocs/references/sym-terms.md- Reference for Chinese names and terms
Key historical texts referenced include:
- Records of the Grand Historian (Shiji - 史记) by Sima Qian
- Spring and Autumn Annals of Wu and Yue (Wuyue Chunqiu - 吴越春秋)
- Records of Yue (Yuejue Shu - 越绝书)